Please note: the views expressed within are part of an intellectual exercise and do not necessarily reflect the personal views of the author.
It is unlikely that the Abraham Accords can help solve the Israeli/Palestinian conflict due to the nature of the agreements, the events that have taken place following their adoption, and the current state of the Middle East region. Any help the Abraham Accords could provide to the Israeli/Palestinian conflict would be due to distant ripple effects of the potential changing attitude in the region that the agreements could cause, but this is merely ideological and also appears unlikely. The Abraham Accords are business agreements. They have certainly benefited both Israel and the signatory nations economically, but have actually further removed the Palestinian cause from Arab nations’ agendas.
The Abraham Accords came about because of a disconnect regarding annexation in President Trump’s Israeli-Palestinian peace proposal. Netanyahu used Trump’s plan as cover for his plan to annex parts of the Israeli-occupied West Bank ahead of Israeli elections. In response, Emirati ambassador to the US Yousef Al-Otaiba wrote an op-ed to halt Israel’s planned annexation, which was addressed to the Israeli public and published on the front page of Israel’s largest newspaper. With the White House also uncertain about annexation, Avi Berkowitz—an advisor to Jared Kushner—met with Netanyahu is Israel in late June 2020, where he proposed normalization with the United Arab Emirates as an alternative to annexation. And so, the Abraham Accords are a series of normalization agreements between Israel, the UAE, and Bahrain, later joined by Sudan and Morocco. On their face, the agreements have nothing to do with the Israeli/Palestinian conflict. The same holds true beyond their face.
The agreements formalized relationships already in place. Israel and the UAE had business recognition in the diamond trade, AI, and defense sectors. Morocco has had informal ties with Israel since the 1960s through their intelligence services, and Bahrain also had secret ties with Israel. To be sure, this formalization has been a boon to both Israel and the normalizing nations, some of whom have attained significant US recognition.[1] There have been trade deals, embassies established, direct flights, and collaboration in sectors such as tourism, healthcare, security, and research and development.[2] No part of these successes has to do with the Israeli/Palestinian conflict.
Palestinians view the agreements as a betrayal.[3] Netanyahu praised the accords as a breakthrough because they separated normalization with Arab states from any Israeli peace with the Palestinians. This fact is in direct opposition to the 2002 Arab Peace Initiative, which conditioned normalization on Israeli withdrawal from the occupied territories and the establishment of a Palestinian state.[4] Instead, the accords are a concession for which Israel gave nothing in return.[5] Normalization used to be a bargaining chip in the effort to resolve the Palestinian conflict, especially since Israel has little appetite to change the status quo.[6]
Israeli settlement activity and fighting continues.[7] In May 2021, Palestinians protested over Israeli evictions, Israel stormed the Al-Aqsa Mosque compound, and Hamas fired hundreds rockets into Israeli territory. In August of this year, three days of violence in the Gaza Strip ended with a ceasefire and 44 dead.[8] The Palestinian death toll in the West Bank for 2022 has already reached its highest total in seven years and Palestinian attacks have also risen sharply.[9] The accords have made no progress on the ground in the West Bank, though they were not intended to.
The Israeli/Palestinian conflict is not the priority it once was for Arab governments.[10] Normalizing with Israel is now more beneficial for some Arab nations than withholding in the name of the Palestinian cause.[11] Iran is a common enemy that threatens the stability of the entire region.[12] Political and security cooperation could lead to a coalition that can deter Iran.[13] The same goes for Turkey and the Muslim Brotherhood, whom the UAE, Bahrain, and Saudi Arabia has designated as a terrorist organization (and of whom Hamas, the de facto rulers of Gaza, is an affiliate).[14] Arab leaders are frustrated with Palestinian leadership.[15] All of these things are further evidenced by the normalizing countries’ actions. Normalization with the UAE was conditioned on Israel halting its current annexation plans, but that was temporary. None of the other signatories held out for concessions regarding Palestine, large or small. After the 2021 violence in Gaza, normalizing countries voiced minimal criticism of Israel and took no action against it.[16] Their newly-established ties were kept unchanged.
In the face of all of this, the accords’ supporters primarily argue that the ideological impact of the agreements could help resolve the Israeli/Palestinian conflict, if only the Palestinians were willing to listen and appreciate the plan. Another argument is that the normalizations give the Arab signatories leverage over Israel with regard to the conflict. And lastly, that the more Israel is connected with its Arab neighbors, the more open it will be to making compromises.
None of these arguments are convincing. Pro-Israeli journals use patronizing language scorning the Palestinians for failing to see the opportunity in the new developments: annexations were thwarted, the two-state solution was kept alive, the Arab states now have positive leverage over Israel. Annexations were temporarily thwarted, and then resumed. Though not a rosy vision, the prime minister of Israel supports a two-state solution![17] Many believed and still believe the accords give Arab states leverage over Israel, but absolutely nothing has shown this. The signatories’ responses to the fighting in 2021 is illustrative of either their lack of leverage over Israel or their lack of interest in Palestine. If the Arab nations would not attempt to use their supposed leverage during direct military conflict and rocket fire, what chance is there that they will suddenly do so at any other time? Whether due to a lack of leverage or of interest, both further emphasize how the Abraham Accords have not, do not, and likely will not help the Israeli/Palestinian conflict. The Israel Policy Forum argues that the normalizing nations’ response—or lack thereof—should not be surprising because, “after all, normalization explicitly severed the chain linking Arab bilateral relationships with Israel to its actions in the Palestinian sphere.” The argument that Israel will now feel more connected and apparently empathetic to Arabs and Palestinians is weak, baseless, and not realistic. Yes, Israel would prefer not to have a constant problem with Palestine. But as Nathan Thrall powerfully argues, Israel “has consistently opted for stalemate… [because a] deal’s cost is much higher than the cost of making no deal.” Israel receives the most US military aid per year of all the world’s nations, its economy is growing, and its population reports one of the world’s highest levels of subjective wellbeing.[18] There is no reason for Israel to suddenly show empathy, especially given that their new Arab allies do not demand so.
The primary way I see for normalization agreements to possibly cause meaningful change in the Israeli/Palestinian conflict is through Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabia would be Israel’s largest success were it to normalize relations and is historically the most sensitive to the need for progress on Israeli-Palestinian issues as a prerequisite for advancing its relations with Israel. In July, President Biden met with Crown Prince MBS, who made it clear that “there would be no normalization with Israel prior to its reaching an agreement with the Palestinians along the lines of the Saudi-inspired 2002 Arab Peace Initiative.”[19] Many were surprised by MBS’s hardline stance given the two countries’ unacknowledged longstanding security cooperation, Saudi’s new open-skies policy, and MBS’s lack of action in response to Bahrain’s normalization with Israel. Some say MBS was taking an obstructionist stance for optics. But Saudi Arabia appears resolute in its stance. And it is a stance Israel will not accede to, as it has not for the past 19 years. Even if Saudi Arabia and Israel normalize relations and it has a meaningful effect on the Israeli/Palestinian conflict, this would not be due to the Abraham Accords. It seems clear that the decisions of Saudi’s Arab neighbors are not affecting the country’s stance.[20]
It is highly unlikely that the Abraham Accords can help the Israeli/Palestinian conflict. The accords are not concerned with the conflict, and neither are the countries signing on. The accords benefit the signatories economically and perhaps connect Arab and Israeli cultures slightly, but the Arab-Israeli conflict is not the same as the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Arab states have shifted their focuses to other issues. Violence against Palestinians has remained high and is increasing without any significant response from normalizing nations, who either lack the leverage or the interest to take a stand. Both possibilities glower in the faces of the accords’ hopefuls. And the idea of Israel’s new willingness to cooperate with Arab nations that will magically transfer to the Palestinians is a farce. As mentioned, the relationships were already established in secret. And the agreements are about money. Israel has continued to occupy and shows no desire to stop. State Department spokesperson Ned Price said normalization is “not a substitute for Israeli-Palestinian peace.” That is certainly true. Nor is it a real start. It is barely a stepping-stone.
Works Cited
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Ali, Wasil. “Frustrations in Sudan over U.S. Delays on Terror List Deal.” Axios, 9 Dec. 2020, https://www.axios.com/2020/12/09/sudan-immunity-bill-delay-compensation-payments.
Chulov, Martin. “Arab States Split for First Time on Refusal to Condemn Israel over Gaza.” Theguardian.com, The Guardian, 17 May 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/may/17/arab-states-split-for-first-time-on-refusal-to-condemn-israel-over-gaza.
Cohen, Sam Zieve. “UAE’s Al Otaiba Goes behind the Scenes of the Abraham Accords.” Jewish Insider, 30 Sept. 2020, https://jewishinsider.com/2020/09/uae-ambassador-al-otaiba-details-the-behind-the-scenes-on-the-uae-deal/.
Crowley, Michael, and David F Halbfinger. “Trump Releases Mideast Peace Plan That Strongly Favors Israel.” Nytimes.com, The New York Times, 28 Jan. 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/28/world/middleeast/peace-plan.html.
Daraghmeh, Mohammed, and Fares Akram. “Palestinians Angrily Reject Trump Mideast Peace Plan.” AP NEWS, Associated Press, 28 Jan. 2020, https://apnews.com/article/israel-united-nations-donald-trump-ap-top-news-ramallah-0dcb0179faf41e1870f35838058f4d18.
Erlanger, Steven. “Arab World Condemns Israeli Violence but Takes Little Action.” Nytimes.com, The New York Times, 14 May 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/05/14/world/middleeast/israel-arab.html.
Fiore, Massimiliano. “The Abraham Accords and the Palestinian Issue.” E-International Relations, 1 Nov. 2020, https://www.e-ir.info/2020/11/01/the-abraham-accords-and-the-palestinian-issue/.
Gross, Judah Ari. “In Morocco, Gantz Signs Israel’s First-Ever Defense MOU with an Arab Country.” The Times of Israel, 24 Nov. 2021, https://www.timesofisrael.com/in-morocco-gantz-signs-israels-first-ever-defense-mou-with-an-arab-country/.
Halbfinger, David M, and Isabel Kershner. “Trump Plan’s First Result: Israel Will Claim Sovereignty over Part of West Bank.” Nytimes.com, The New York Times, 28 Jan. 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/28/world/middleeast/israel-west-bank-annex-sovereignty.html?action=click&module=Top+Stories&pgtype=Homepage.
Harkov, Lahav, et al. “Annexation Will Not Happen on July 1 – US Sources.” The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com, 29 June 2020, https://www.jpost.com/breaking-news/gantz-to-berkowitz-coronavirus-more-pressing-than-annexation-633165.
Holland, Steve, et al. “Trump Leaps into Middle East Fray with Peace Plan That Palestinians Denounce.” Reuters, Thomson Reuters, 28 Jan. 2020, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-palestinians-plan/trump-leaps-into-middle-east-fray-with-peace-plan-that-palestinians-denounce-idUSKBN1ZR1SR.
Holland, Steve. “Israel, Sudan Agree to Normalize Ties with U.S. Help: Joint Statement.” Reuters, Thomson Reuters, 23 Oct. 2020, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-sudan-israel-announcement-idUSKBN27827T.
Israeli Prime Minister Lapid Backs Two-State Solution | | 1UN News. United Nations, United Nations, 22 Sept. 2022, https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/09/1127551.
Israel-Palestine Conflict. Today’s Latest from Al Jazeera, https://www.aljazeera.com/tag/israel-palestine-conflict/.
Lawler, Dave, and Barak Ravid. “Trump Announces Normalization of Ties between Israel and UAE.” Axios, 13 Aug. 2020, https://www.axios.com/2020/08/13/trump-uae-israel-normalization-of-relations.
Lazaroff, Tovah. “Behind Scenes of Abraham Accords: Israeli Annexation Halted Day Before.” JPost.com, The Jerusalem Post, 13 Dec. 2021, https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/israeli-west-bank-annexation-was-halted-in-2020-with-a-24-hour-deadline-688648.
Lee, Matthew. “Israel, Morocco to Normalize Ties; US Shifts W Sahara Policy.” AP NEWS, Associated Press, 10 Dec. 2020, https://apnews.com/article/donald-trump-africa-israel-north-africa-morocco-4279242f6f688d242bad5c7a64e29caf.
Lynfield, Ben. “Israel’s Rewarding Road to Normalization.” Foreign Policy, 31 Jan. 2022, https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/01/31/israel-abraham-accords-normalization-middle-east/.
Lynfield, Ben. “Two Years Later, the Abraham Accords Are Losing Their Luster.” Foreign Policy, 23 Sept. 2022, https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/09/23/abraham-accords-israel-palestine-two-years/.
Magid, Jacob. “Settler Leaders Call on PM to Oppose Trump Plan, Even at the Cost of Annexation.” The Times of Israel, 28 Jan. 2020, https://www.timesofisrael.com/settler-leaders-call-on-pm-to-oppose-trump-plan-even-at-the-cost-of-annexation/.
Mandel, Eric R. “Is the Biden Administration about to Put the Abraham Accords at Risk?” Thehill.com, The Hill, 16 Oct. 2022, https://thehill.com/opinion/international/3687458-is-the-biden-administration-about-to-put-the-abraham-accords-at-risk/.
MEE and Agencies. “Israel Approves New West Bank Settler Homes, Weeks after ‘Peace’ Deals with UAE, Bahrain.” Middle East Eye, 14 Oct. 2020, https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/israel-palestine-west-bank-settlements-uae-bahrain-deal.
Pressman, Jeremy. “The False Promise of the Abraham Accords.” Foreign Affairs, 14 Sept. 2022, https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/israel/2021-09-15/false-promise-abraham-accords.
PTI. “Israel, UAE and Bahrain Sign Abraham Accord; Trump Says ‘Dawn of New Middle East.’” The Hindu, 28 Nov. 2021, https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/israel-uae-and-bahrain-sign-abraham-accord-trump-says-dawn-of-new-middle-east/article61706167.ece.
Ravid, Barak, and Alayna Treene. “Biden Plans to Keep Pushing Normalization Efforts Trump Began in the Middle East.” Axios, 6 Dec. 2020, https://www.axios.com/2020/12/06/biden-trump-abraham-accords-israel-bahrain-uae.
Ravid, Barak. “Behind the Scenes of the U.s.-Brokered Israel-Bahrain Agreement.” Axios, 11 Sept. 2020, https://www.axios.com/2020/09/11/behind-scenes-us-brokered-bahrain-israel-deal.
Ravid, Barak. “Behind the Scenes: How the Israel-UAE Deal Came Together.” Axios, 13 Aug. 2020, https://www.axios.com/2020/08/13/how-the-israel-uae-recognition-deal-came-together.
Ravid, Barak. “Behind the Scenes: How the Israel-UAE Deal Came Together.” Axios, 13 Aug. 2020, https://www.axios.com/2020/08/13/how-the-israel-uae-recognition-deal-came-together.
Ravid, Barak. “Fallout between Trump and Top GOP Senator Made Morocco-Israel Deal Possible.” Axios, 11 Dec. 2020, https://www.axios.com/2020/12/11/trump-morocco-israel-inhofe.
Ravid, Barak. “Morocco to Normalize Ties with Israel in Deal with Trump over Western Sahara.” Axios, 10 Dec. 2020, https://axios.com/2020/12/10/morocco-israel-deal-trump-recognize-western-sahara.
Ravid, Barak. “Netanyahu Says He’s ‘Still Committed’ to Annexations despite UAE Deal.” Axios, 13 Aug. 2020, https://www.axios.com/2020/08/13/netanyahu-uae-deal-annexation-plans-suspension.
Reuters Staff. “Oman Content with Current Israel Relationship, Foreign Minister Says.” Reuters, Thomson Reuters, 11 Feb. 2021, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-oman-politics/oman-content-with-current-israel-relationship-foreign-minister-says-idUSKBN2AB1XB.
Reuters Staff. “Sudan Quietly Signs Abraham Accords Weeks after Israel Deal.” Reuters, Thomson Reuters, 7 Jan. 2021, https://www.reuters.com/article/sudan-usa-israel-int-idUSKBN29B2MS.
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Reuters Staff. “U.S. Treasury Signs Loan Deal to Clear Sudan’s $1.2 Billion World Bank Arrears.” Reuters, Thomson Reuters, 6 Jan. 2021, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-sudan-usa-mnuchin/u-s-treasury-signs-loan-deal-to-clear-sudans-1-2-billion-world-bank-arrears-idUSKBN29B2J3.
Samuels, Ben. “Biden to Restore Palestinian Aid, Reopen Diplomatic Missions Shut by Trump, UN Envoy Says.” Haaretz, 26 Jan. 2021, https://www.haaretz.com/us-news/2021-01-26/ty-article/biden-admin-to-restore-palestinian-aid-work-for-two-state-solution-un-envoy-says/0000017f-e100-d38f-a57f-e75204df0000.
Samuels, Ben. “Israel’s Normalization Pacts Not a Substitute for Peace with Palestinians, State Dept. Says.” Haaretz, 2 Feb. 2021, https://www.haaretz.com/us-news/2021-02-02/ty-article/.premium/state-dept-israel-normalization-pacts-not-a-substitute-for-peace-with-palestinians/0000017f-e0ad-d38f-a57f-e6ff044e0000.
Samuels, Ben. “No Normalization with Israel until Two-State Solution Reached, Saudi FM Says.” Haaretz.com, 16 July 2022, https://www.haaretz.com/middle-east-news/2022-07-16/ty-article/.premium/no-normalization-with-israel-until-two-state-solution-reached-saudi-fm-says/00000182-0614-d213-adda-17bd7b2d0000.
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Stab in the Back: Palestinians Condemn Israel-Bahrain Deal. Aljazeera.com, Al Jazeera, 11 Sept. 2020, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/9/11/stab-in-the-back-palestinians-condemn-israel-bahrain-deal.
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Zakheim, Dov S. “Why the Saudis Took No Steps toward Normalizing Relations with Israel.” Thehill.com, The Hill, 22 July 2022, https://thehill.com/opinion/national-security/3568362-why-the-saudis-took-no-steps-toward-normalizing-relations-with-israel/.
Zieve-Cohen, Sam. “UAE’s Al Otaiba Goes behind the Scenes of the Abraham Accords.” Jewish Insider, 30 Sept. 2020, https://jewishinsider.com/2020/09/uae-ambassador-al-otaiba-details-the-behind-the-scenes-on-the-uae-deal/.
[1] For example, the US recognized Morocco’s sovereignty over Western Sahara and the US signed a bridge loan deal for Sudan. See Lee, Matthew. “Israel, Morocco to Normalize Ties; US Shifts W Sahara Policy.” AP NEWS, Associated Press, 10 Dec. 2020, https://apnews.com/article/donald-trump-africa-israel-north-africa-morocco-4279242f6f688d242bad5c7a64e29caf and Reuters Staff. “U.S. Treasury Signs Loan Deal to Clear Sudan’s $1.2 Billion World Bank Arrears.” Reuters, Thomson Reuters, 6 Jan. 2021, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-sudan-usa-mnuchin/u-s-treasury-signs-loan-deal-to-clear-sudans-1-2-billion-world-bank-arrears-idUSKBN29B2J3.
[2] Israel and Morocco signed a defense MOU; Bahrain sent an ambassador to Israel; Sudan repealed an Israel boycott law; and Israel, Jordan and the UAE signed their “Electricity for Water” deal. Law firms are collaborating and new investments are being made between the nations. According to Israel’s Ministry of Defense, the value of Israeli defense exports to countries with which it normalized relations in 2020 reached $791 million.
PTI. “Israel, UAE and Bahrain Sign Abraham Accord; Trump Says ‘Dawn of New Middle East.’” The Hindu, 28 Nov. 2021, https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/israel-uae-and-bahrain-sign-abraham-accord-trump-says-dawn-of-new-middle-east/article61706167.ece.
[3] “These peace agreements come at the same time that Israel is continuing with occupation and killing Palestinians and demolishing their homes,” said Sami Hureini, a youth leader from the West Bank village of at-Tuwani. “Things are just getting worse. This is why we reject all normalization. It’s a betrayal by these Arab countries.”
Lynfield, Ben. “Israel’s Rewarding Road to Normalization.” Foreign Policy, 31 Jan. 2022, https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/01/31/israel-abraham-accords-normalization-middle-east/.
[4] “’Stab in the Back’: Palestinians Condemn Israel-Bahrain Deal.” Aljazeera.com, Al Jazeera, 11 Sept. 2020, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/9/11/stab-in-the-back-palestinians-condemn-israel-bahrain-deal. AFP and TOI Staff. “Palestinians Say Sudan-Israel Normalization Meeting Is a ‘Stab in the Back.’” The Times of Israel, 4 Feb. 2020, https://www.timesofisrael.com/palestinians-say-sudan-israel-normalization-meeting-a-stab-in-the-back/.
[5] Kaye, Dalia Dassa. “Why the Abraham Accords Won’t Bring Israeli-Palestinian Peace.” Foreign Policy, 29 Oct. 2021, https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/10/29/why-the-abraham-accords-wont-bring-israeli-palestinian-peace/.
[6] Thrall, Nathan. “Israel-Palestine: The Real Reason There’s Still No Peace.” The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, 16 May 2017, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/may/16/the-real-reason-the-israel-palestine-peace-process-always-fails.
[7] Lynfield, Ben. “Two Years Later, the Abraham Accords Are Losing Their Luster.” Foreign Policy, 23 Sept. 2022, https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/09/23/abraham-accords-israel-palestine-two-years/. “Israel-Palestine Conflict.” Today’s Latest from Al Jazeera, https://www.aljazeera.com/tag/israel-palestine-conflict/.
[8] “Israel-Gaza Violence: The Conflict Explained.” BBC News, BBC, 8 Aug. 2022, https://www.bbc.com/news/newsbeat-44124396.
[9] Shezaf, Hagar. “2022 Already the Deadliest Year for West Bank Palestinians in 7 Years.” Haaretz, 14 Sept. 2022, https://www.haaretz.com/middle-east-news/palestinians/2022-09-14/ty-article/.highlight/2022-already-the-deadliest-year-for-west-bank-palestinians-in-7-years/00000183-3177-d6c9-a197-797f257d0000.
[10] Pressman, Jeremy. “The False Promise of the Abraham Accords.” Foreign Affairs, 14 Sept. 2022, https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/israel/2021-09-15/false-promise-abraham-accords.
Paraphrasing: Trump peace plan didn’t make waves. Neither did the relocation of the American embassy or recognition of Jerusalem as Israel’s capital.
[11] Koplow, Michael, et al. Israel Policy Forum, 2021, The New Normal: Arab-Israeli Normalization and the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict, https://israelpolicyforum.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/The-New-Normal-Arab-Normalization-and-The-Israeli-Palestinian-Conflict-Full-Study.pdf.
[12] Mohnblatt, Debbie. “Greater Iranian Threat Brings Abraham Accords Countries Closer, Experts Say.” The Media Line, 29 Mar. 2022, https://themedialine.org/by-region/greater-iranian-threat-brings-abraham-accords-countries-closer-experts-say/.
Zieve-Cohen, Sam. “UAE’s Al Otaiba Goes behind the Scenes of the Abraham Accords.” Jewish Insider, 30 Sept. 2020, https://jewishinsider.com/2020/09/uae-ambassador-al-otaiba-details-the-behind-the-scenes-on-the-uae-deal/.
[13] Singh, Michael. “Axis of Abraham.” Foreign Affairs, Mar. 2022, https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/middle-east/2022-02-22/axis-abraham.
[14] Fiore, Massimiliano. “The Abraham Accords and the Palestinian Issue.” E-International Relations, 1 Nov. 2020, https://www.e-ir.info/2020/11/01/the-abraham-accords-and-the-palestinian-issue
[15] Koplow
[16] Erlanger, Steven. “Arab World Condemns Israeli Violence but Takes Little Action.” Nytimes.com, The New York Times, 14 May 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/05/14/world/middleeast/israel-arab.html.
[17] “Israeli Prime Minister Lapid Backs Two-State Solution | | 1UN News.” United Nations, United Nations, 22 Sept. 2022, https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/09/1127551.
[18] Thrall, Nathan. “Israel-Palestine: The Real Reason There’s Still No Peace.” The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, 16 May 2017, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/may/16/the-real-reason-the-israel-palestine-peace-process-always-fails. Page 5.
[19] Zakheim, Dov S. “Why the Saudis Took No Steps toward Normalizing Relations with Israel.” Thehill.com, The Hill, 22 July 2022, https://thehill.com/opinion/national-security/3568362-why-the-saudis-took-no-steps-toward-normalizing-relations-with-israel/.
[20] Samuels, Ben. “No Normalization with Israel until Two-State Solution Reached, Saudi FM Says.” Haaretz.com, 16 July 2022, https://www.haaretz.com/middle-east-news/2022-07-16/ty-article/.premium/no-normalization-with-israel-until-two-state-solution-reached-saudi-fm-says/00000182-0614-d213-adda-17bd7b2d0000.